The skin consists of three layers the Epidermis; Dermis and Hyperdermis.
The epidermis is the thin outermost layer which acts as a protective barrier from pathogens and toxins from invading the body. The Dermis is the inner layer which is situated between the epidermis and hyperdermis. The dermis comprises of hair follicles, sweat glands, blood vessels, nerve receptors, and connective tissue which all help with sweat production; regulating body temperature through increasing and/or decreasing blood flow to the skin depending on whether it is hold or cold; tissue repair; sensing pain and differentiating between hot and cold objects. The hyperdermis is located below the dermis it serves to insulate the body from fluctuating temperatures; provides additional cushioning and acts as a energy storage area. The respiratory system is located in the thorax; it is comprised of an upper and lower respiratory tract. The upper respiratory tract contains organs situated outside of the chest cavity being the frontal sinus, sphenoidal sinus, nose, nasal cavities, nasal conchae, pharynx, larynx and upper trachea. The lower respiratory tract sits inside the chest cavity and it contains the lower trachea; bronchi; bronchioles; alveoli, left and right lungs and diaphragm. The function of the respiratory system is to distribute air and exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide gases between the air and blood and between blood and the body’s cells.
The respiratory system filters, warms and humidifies the air on inhalation, it assists with speech and smell along with maintaining homeostasis. The urinary system is comprised of two kidneys, two ureters, one urinary bladder, and one urethra. The kidneys are situated on the rear wall of the abdomen laying either side of the vertebrae between T12 and L3, with the right kidney sitting lower than the left.
The ureters are muscular tubes that connect the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder lies between the ureters and the urethra which lies within the lower abdominal region. The function of the urinary system is to filter blood and eliminate waste such as urea, uric acid and creatnine from the body; it regulates blood volume and blood pressure by secreting the enzyme rennin from the juxtaglomerular cells, it regulates blood pH and maintains homeostasis of water, electrolytes and metabolites. The urinary system also plays an integral role in the activation of vitamin d for calcium absorption and also in the maintenance of homeostasis. The Nervous System processes electrical stimulus from sensory receptors, it transfers and interprets signals to control the body’s muscles and organs. The nervous system is comprised of the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system and autonomic nervous system.
There are three main anatomical structures that play a pivotal role in the nervous system being the brain, nervous tissue and the spinal cord. The brain The brain comprises of the brain stem, cerebellum and cerebrum. The brain stem is located at the base of the brain and starts from the upper cervical spinal cord and finishes at the diencephalon of the cerebrum. The brain stem is split into medulla, pons and mid brain. Behind the brain stem is the cerebellum which is located below the cerebrum. Its role is to co-ordinate musculoskeletal movement, control posture and balance. The cerebrum is made up of 4 lobes being frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. These four lobes are associated with reasoning, movement, visual processing and auditory perception. Nervous Tissue Nervous tissue is comprised of neurons and glial cells which both play a role in cell to cell signalling. Neurons are the main type of cells held accountable for the computation and communication that the nervous system produces. Glial cells play a supporting role for the nervous tissue to function. The Spinal Cord The spinal cord and its associated nerves are the most important structure between the body and the brain. They are a vital link between the brain and the body, and from the body to the brain structured by sensory and motor tracts and complex pathways (afferent and efferent). The spinal cord is a tubular collection of nerve fibres measuring approx. 40 – 50cm long that extends from the brain stem running down through the foramen magnum and ending at the lumbar region (L1-L2) at this point it becomes the cauda equina and continues through the remainder of the spinal column which is part of the central nervous system. The spinal cord is protected by 24 vetebrae that is known as the spine, it is split into 5 regions referred to as cervical region C1-C7 (neck); thoracic region T1-T8 (chest) lumbar region L1-L5 (lower back); sacral region S1-S5 (posterior of the pelvis) and coccygeal region C1-C4 (rear of the spine). There are 31 pairs of associated nerves which attaches from the junction between each vertebra and innervates to the body to perform certain actions such as the cervical nerves control breathing and arm movements; thoracic nerves control chest and abdominal muscle movements; lumbar nerves control hip and leg movements along with bowel and bladder function; sacral and coccyx nerves control balance, bladder, bowel and sexual function. The digestive system is comprised of a gastrointestinal tract which is a muscular tube extending from the mouth to the anus including organs of the pharynx; oesophagus; stomach; small intestine; large intestine and accessory organs of the liver; gallbladder and pancreas that form secretions for digestion.
The digestive system plays a role in the process of mechanically and biochemically breaking down foods to extract nutrients for absorption into the body through the gastrointestinal tract to support vital bodily functions. Mechanical Process of Digestion and Absorption
Digestive Enzymes are secreted along the gastrointestinal tract and break down foods enabling the nutrients to be absorbed into the blood stream for use in various bodily functions and movements. There are three types of Digestive Enzymes they are:
These enzymes break down food particles for energy and storage in liver and muscles. The breakdown chemical reaction is known as Hydrolysis. It requires water to separate the bonds to convert food to energy. Energy that is stored is converted by other enzymes that the body can use when required. The digestive system plays an integral role in relation to the body’s defences and immune system homeostasis by preventing exposure to pathogens in foods consumed by the secretion of liposomes in saliva which breaks down bacterial cells and the stomach acid provides defence as bacteria do not survive well in low acidity. The mucosal membranes of the gastrointestinal tract provide a protective barrier to further prevent exposure to pathogens. Disease in any of the organs can affect the digestive system and thus the ability of the digestive system to break down food for energy. |
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November 2023
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